Table of contens: CHAPTER 1. INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY 1 1.1. The concept of information systems 1 1.2. History of the concept of information systems 5 1.2.1. The centralized processing stage (1950s–1960s) 5 1.2.2. The data decentralization stage (1970s–1990s) 6 1.2.3. The interoperability and standardization stage (1990s) 6 1.2.4. The universality and globalization …